ABILITY : CAN and COULD

ABILITY : CAN and COULD 

Can is used to express physical ability.
- Tom is strong. He can lift that heavy box

Can is frequently used with verbs of the five senses : see , hear , feel , smell , taste
- I can see Central Park from my apartment

Can is used to express possibility.
- you can buy a hammer at the hardware store. ( you can buy = it is possible for one to buy. )

Can is used to give permisson in informal situations.
a. I’m not quite ready to go , but you can leave if you are in a hurry. I’ll meet you later.

In formal situations , may rather that can is usually used to give permission
b. when you finish the test , you may leave ( compare a and b )

Negative form : cannot or can’t.
- dogs can bark , but they cannot / can’t talk T

The past form of can meaning “ ability “ is could
- Tom could lift the box, but I couldn’t

Negative : could not or couldn’t

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

  SUBJECT  OBJECT  POSSESSIVE  POSSESSIVE
                   PRONOUN       PRONOUN PRONOUN   ADJECTIVE

Singular    I   me  mine   my book
                   You   you         yours          your book
                   She,he,it     her,him,it hers , his , its her , his , its book

Plural            we   us  ours   our books
                   You    you  yours   your books
                   They   them  theirs   their books


A pronoun is used in place of a noun. The noun it refers to is called the “ antecedent “
Example :
- I read a book. It was good
( the pronoun it refers to the antecedent noun book , A singular pronoun is used to refer to a singular noun )
- I read some books. They were good
( A plural pronoun is used to refer to a plural noun )

Sometimes the antecedent noun is understood , not explicity stated.
- I like tea. Do you like tea tea ?
( I refers to the speaker, and you refers to the person the speaker is talking to

Subject pronouns are used as subject of sentences as he
- John has a car. He drives to work

Object pronouns are used as the objects of verbs.
- John works in my office. I know him well

As the objects of preposititon.
- I talk to him every day

Possessive pronouns are not followed immediately by a noun ; they stand alone .
- That book is hers. Yours is over there

Possessive pronouns do not take aposstophers
- That book is her’s . your’s is over there ( Incorrect )

Possessive Adjectives are followed immediately by a noun; they do not stand alone
- Her book is herer. Your book is over here

Compare : Its has no APOSTROPHE when it is used as a possessive.
- A bird uses its wings to fly
- A bird uses it’s wings to fly ( Incorrect )

It’s has an apostrophe when it is used as a contractionof it is
- it’s cold today

Or it has when has is part of the present perfect tense
- the harbour Inn is my favorite old hotel. It’s been in business since 1933

Exercise : Personal pronouns : antecedents
Directions : Identify the personal pronouns and their antecedents
1.Jack has a part-time job. He works at a fast food restaurant
     ( he = a pronoun ; jack = the antecedent )
2.most monkeys don’t like water , but they can swim well when they have to
3.The teacher graded the students’ papers last night. She returned them during class today
4.Nancy took an apple with her to work. She ate it at lunch time
5.A dog makes a good pet if it is properly trained
6.Tom’s cat is named Maybelle Alice. She* is very independent . she never obeys Tom. His dogs, on the other hand, obey him gladly. They like to please him.

Exercise : 2 Possessive pronouns and adjectives.
Directions : choose the corect words in italics.

1.this is my/mine umbrella. Your/yours umbrella is over there
2.This umbrella is my/mine . the other one is your/yours
3.Mary and Bob have their/theirs books. In other words, Mary has her/hers and Bob has his/him
4.A honeybee has two wings on each side of its/it’s body
5.Its/it’s true that a homing pigeon will find its/it’s way home even thoughit begins its/it’s trip in unfamiliar territory
6.I have a pet. Its/it’s name is Squeak. Its/it’s a turtle. Its/it’s been my pet for two years
7.Our/ours house is almost the same as our/ours neighbors’ house. The only difference in appearance is that our/ours is gray and their / theirs is white
8.When I was in Florida, I observed an interesting fish-eating bird called an anhinga. It/they dives into the water and spears its/it’s prey on its/it’s long, pointed bill. After emerging from the water , it/they tosses the fish into the air and catches it/them in mid-air, then swallows it/them headfirst. Its/it’s interesting to watch anhingas in action. I enjoy watching it/them
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COMBINING INDEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

COMBINING INDEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Example :

a. It was raining hard. There was a strong wind.

b. It was raining hard , there was a strong wind ( incorrect puntuation )

Note

Example (a) contains two independent clauses or two complete sentences . the punctuation must be a period is used to separate two independent clauses , not a comma. In (b) is not correctv. The error is called “ a run-on sentence

A conjuntion may be used to connect two independent clauses.

PUNCTUATION :

Usually a comma immediately precedes the conjunction.

Example :

- it was raining hard , and there was a strong wind.

In short sentences , the comma is sometimes omitted

Example :

- it was raining hard and there was a strong wind.

In informal writing , a conjuntion sometimes begins a sentence.

Example :

- it was raining hard. And there was a strong wind

In addition to and , but , or and nor, other conjunctions are used to connect two independent clauses.

Example :

a. He was tired, so he want to bed

b. The child hid behind his mother’s skirt, for the was afraid of the dog

She did not study , yet she passed the exam

Note :

So ( meaning “therefore, as a result”)

For ( meaning “ because”)

Yet ( meaning “ but, nevertheles”)

A comma almost always precedes so , for , and yet  when they are used as coordinating conjunctions.**

*in British English, a period is called” a full stop”

** so,for and yet have aother meanings in other structures: e.g. he is not so tall as his brother.( so=as), we waited for the bus ( for=a preposition), she hasn’t arrived yet ( yet=an adverb meaning “ up to this time”)

Exercise :

Combining independent clauses with coordinating conjunctions.

Directions : pinctuate the sentences by adding commas or periods. Do not add any words. Capitalize where necessary

1. the boys walked the girl ran

   ---> the boys walked . the girl ran

2. the teacher lectured the students took notes

3. The teacher lectured and the students took notes

4. Elena came to the meeting but pedro stayed home

5. Elena came to the meeting her brother stayed home

6. Her academic record was outstanding yet she was not accepted by the university

7. I have not finished writing my term paper yet I will not be finished until sometime next week

8. We had to go to the grocery store for some mil and bread

9. We had to go to the grocery store for there was nothing in the house to fix for dinner

10. Kostas didn’t have enough money to buy an airplane ticket so he couldn’t fly home for the holiday.

Exercise 2 : combining independent clauses with coordinating conjunctions

Directions : punctuate the sentences by adding commas or periods. Do not add any words. Capitalize where necessary

1. a thermometer is used to measure temperature a barometer measures air pressure

2. Daniel made many promises but he had no intention of keeping them

3. I always enjoyed mathematics in high school so I decided to majorin it in college

4. Anna is in serious legal trouble for she had no car insurance at the time of the accident

5. Last night martha had to study for a test so she went to the library

6. The ancient egyptians had good denstist archeologists have found mummies that had gold fillings in their teeth

7. Both John and I had many errands to do yesterday John had to go to the post office and the bookstore I had to go to the post office the travel agency and the bank

8. I did not like the leading actor yet the movie was quite good on the whole

9. The team of researchers has not finished compiling the statistics yet their work will not be made public until later

10. We have nothing to fear for our country is strong and united

11. He slapped his desk in disgust he had failed another examination and had ruined his chances for a passing grade in the course

12. I struggled to keep my head above water I tried to yell for help but no sound came from my mouth

13. The earthquake was devastating tall buildings crumbled and fell to the e

Paired conjunctions : both … and; not only …but also; either…or; neither…nor

Paired conjunctions : both … and; not only …but also; either…or; neither…nor

Two subjects connected by both … and take a plural verb

- both my mother and my sister are here

When two subjects are connected by not only …………… but also, either … or, or neither …. nor, the subject that is closer to the verb determiners whether the verb is singular or plural.

Example :

- Not only my mother but also my sister is here

- Not only my sister but also my parents are here

- Neither my mother nor my sister is here

- neither my sister nor my parents are here

Notice the parallel stucture in the examples. The same grammatical form should follow each part of the paired conjunctions.*

Example :

- the research project will take both time and money. ( both + noun + and + noun )

- yesterday it not only rained but ( also ) snowed ( not only + verb + but also + verb )

- I’ll take either chemistry or physics next quarter ( either + noun + or + noun )

- that book is neither interesting nor accurate ( neither + adjective + nor + adjective )

Notice the parallel sturcture in the examples. The same grammtical form should follow each part of the paired conjunctions. *

* paired conjuntions are also called “ correlative conjunctions “

Exercise : Paired conjunctions

Directions : add is or are to each sentence.

1. Both the teacher and the student ………… here

2. Neither the teacher nor the student …………. here

3. Not only the teacher but also the student ….here

4. Not only the teacher but also the students ………… here

5. Either the students or the teacher ……………. planning to come

6. Either the teacher or the students ………….. planning to come

7. Both the students and the teachers ………… planning to come

8. Both the students and the teacher ……….. planning to come

Exercise 2 : error analysis .paired conjunctions.

Directions : what is wrong with these sentences ?

1. either John will call Mary or Bob.

2. Not only Sue saw the mouse but also the cat

3. Both my mother talked to the teacher and my father

4. Either Mr.Anderson or Ms.Wiggins are going to teach our class today

5. I enjoy not only reading novels but also megazines

6. Oxigen is plentiful. Both air contains oxygen and water

Exercie 3 : Paired conjuntions.

Directions : combine the following into sentences that contain parallel structure. Use both …. and, not only …. but also , either …or, neither…nor

1. He does not have a pen. He does not have paper

   --> he has neither a pen nor paper.

2. Ron enjoys horseback riding. Bob enjoys horseback riding

3. You can have tea , or you can have coffee

4. Arthur is not in class today. Ricardo is not class today

5. Arthur is absent. Ricardo is absent

6. We can fix dinner for them here , or we can take them to a reastaurant

7. She wants to buy a chevrolet, or she wants to buy a Toyota

8. The leopard faces extinction. The tiger faces extinction

9. The library doesn’t have the book I need. The bookstore doesn’t have the book I need

10. We could fly , or we could take the rain

11. The president’s assistant will not confirm the story. The president’s assistant will not deny the story

12. Coal is not irreplaceable natural resource. Oil is an irreplaceable natural resource

13. Smallpox is a danerous disease. Malaria is a dangerous disease

14. Her roommates don’t know where she is. Her brother doesn’t know where she is

15. According to the news report , it will snow tonight , or it will rain tonight

PARALLEL STRUCTURE

PARALLEL STRUCTURE

One use of a conjunction is to connect words or phrases that have the same grammatical function in a sentence. This use of conjunctions  is called “ parallel sructure “ , the conjunctions used in this pattern are and , but , or , nor . These words are called “ coordinating conjunctions “

Example :

a. Steve and his friend are coming to dinner

b. Susan raised her hand and snapped her fingers

c. He is waving his arms and (is) shouting at us

d. These shoes are old but comfortable.

e. He wants to watch TV or  (to) listen to some music

Note :

In(a). noun + and + noun

  (b). verb + and + verb

  (c). verb + and + verb ( the second auxiliary may be omitted if it is the same as the first auxiliary )

  (d). adj + but + adj

  (e). Infinitive + or + infinitive ( the second to is usually omitted )

A parallel structure may contain more than two parts. In a sereies , commas are used to separate each unit. The final comma the precedes the conjuntion is optional.

Example :

a. Steve , Joe , and Alice are coming to dinner

b. Susan raised her hand, snapped her fingers, and asked a question.

c. The colors in that fabric are red,gold,black and green

Note: No commas are used if there are only two parts to a parallel structure

- Steve, and Joe are coming to a dinner ( INCORRECT )

Exercise : Parallel Structure

Directions : Underlined the parallel stucture in each sentence and give the pattern that is used , as shown in the examples.

1. the old man is extremly kind and generous. Adjective and adjective

2. He received a pocket calculator and a wool sweater for his birthday ……… ….. ………

3. She spoke angrily and bitterly about the war.  ……… ….. ………

4. I looked for my book but couldn’t find it.  ……… ….. ………

5. I hopeto go to that university and study under Dr.Liu. ……… ….. ………

6. In my spare time, I enjoy reading novels or watching television. ……… ….. ………

7. He will leave at eight and arrive at nine. ……… ….. ………

8. He should have broken his engagement to Beth and Married sue instead. ……… ….. ………

Exercise 2 : error analysis : Parallel structure

Directions : correct the errors

1. by obeying the speed limit , we can save energy , lives , and it costs us less

2. My home offers me a feeling of security , warm and love

3. The pioneers labored to clear away the forest and planting crops

4. When I refused to help her , she became very angry and shout at me

5. In my spare time , I enjoy taking care of my aquarium and to work on my stamp collection.

6. With their keen sight , fine hearing , and they have a refined sense of smell , wolves hunt elk , deer , moose and caribou.

7. All plants need light , to have a suitable climate , and an ample supply of water and minerals from the soil.

8. Slowly and being cautious , the firefighter ascended the burned staircase.

9. The indian cobra snake and the king cobra use poison from their fangs in two ways : by injecting it directly into their prey or they spit it into the eyes of the victim

10. On my vacation I lost a suitcase , broke my glasses , and I missed my flight home

11. When anna moved , she had to rent an apartment , make new friends , and to find a job.

Exercise 3 : error analysis : parallel structure

Directions : correct the errors

What do people in your country think of bats ?are they mean and scary creatures , or are they simbols of happiness and lucky ?

In westerns countries , many people have an unreasoned fear of bats. According to scientist Dr. Sharon Horowitz , bats are beneficial mammals and harmless. “ when I was a child , I believed that a bat would attack me and tangled itself in my hair. Now I know better, “ said Dr. Horowitz

Contrary to popular western myths, bats do not attack humans and not blind. Although a few bats may be infected, they are not major carries of rabies or carry other dread diseases. Bats help natural plant life by pollinating plants ,spreading seeds , and they eat insects. If you get rid of bats that eat overripe fruit . then fruit flies can flourish and destroying the fruit industry.

According to Dr.Horowitz , bats make loving pets , and they are trainable , and are gentle pets. Not many people , however , are known to have bats as pets , and bats themselves prefer to avoid people

Troublesome verbs : Raise / Rise , Set / Sit . Lay / Lie

Troublesome verbs : Raise / Rise , Set / Sit . Lay / Lie

Transitive intransitive

a. Raise , raised , raised b. rise , rose , risen

Tom raised his hand the sun rises in the east

c. Set, set , set d. sit , sat , sat

I will set the book on the desk I sit in the front row

e. Lay , laid , laid f. lie** , lay , lain

I am laying the book on the desk he is laying on his bed

Note : raise , set and lay are transitive verbs; they are followed by an object. Rise , sit and lie are intransitive; i.e. they are not followed by an object

In (a): raised is followed by the object hand

In (b): rises is not followed by an object

Lay and lie are troublesome for native speakers too are frequently misused.

** lie is a regular verb ( lie , lied ) when it means “ not tell the truth “ : he lied to me about his age

Exercise : Troublesome verbs

Directions : Choose the correct word in parentheses.

1. the student ( raised , rose ) his hand in class

2. Hot air ( raises , rises )

3. Ann ( set , sat ) in a chair because she was tired

4. I ( set , sat ) your dictionary on the table a few minutes ago

5. Hens ( lye , lie ) eggs

6. Sara is ( laying , lying ) on the grass in the park right now

7. Jan ( laid , lay ) the comb on top of the dresser a few minutes ago

8. If you are tired , you should ( lay , lie ) down and take a nap

9. San francisco ( lay , lies ) to the north of Los Angeles

10. Mr. Faust ( raises , rises ) many different kinds of flowers in his garden

11. The student ( raised , rose ) from her seat and walked to the front of the auditorium to receive her diploma

12. Hiroki is a very methodical person. Every night before going to bed , he ( lyes , lies ) his clothes for the next day on his chair

13. Where are my keys ? I ( lay , laid ) them here on the desk five minutes ago

14. Fred ( set , sat ) the table for dinner

15. Fred ( set , sat ) at the table for dinner

16. The fulfillment of all your dreams ( lies , lays ) within you - if you just believe in yourself.

SIMPLE PAST

SIMPLE PAST

The Simple Past indicates that an activity or situation began and ended at a particular time in the past.

Example :

a. I walked to school yesterday

b. John lived in Paris for ten years , but now he lives in Rome

c. I bought a new car three days ago

If a sentence contains when and has the simple past in both clauses , the action in the when clause happens first.

Example :

a. Rita stood under a tree when it began to rain ( first : the rain began , second : she stood under a tree )

b. When Mrs. Chu heard a strange noise , she got up to investigate.

c. When I dropped my cup , the coffee spilled on my lap.

PAST PROGRESSIVE

Example :

a. I was waling down the street when it began to rain ( first : I was waling down the street , second : it began to rain. Both actions occured at the same time ,but one action began earlier and was in progress when the other action occured )

b. When I was walking down the street , it began to rain

c. Rita was standing under a tree when it began to rain

d. At eight o’clock last night , I was studying (my studying began before 8:00, was in progress at that time , and probably continued )

e. Last year at this time. I was attending school

Sometimes the past progressive is used in both parts of a sentence when two actions are in progress simultaneously

a. While I was studying in one room of our apartment , my roommate was having a party in the other room

Exercise : Simple Past vs Past Progressive

1. I am sitting in class right now. I ( sit ) …………. in class at this exact same time yesterday

2. I don’t want to go to the zoo today because it is raining. The same thing happened yesterday. I ( want , not ) ………… to go to the zoo because it ( rain ) ……..

3. I ( call ) ………….Roger at nine last night , but he ( be , not )……….. at home. He ( study ) …………… at the library

4. I ( hear , not ) …………… the thunder during the storm last night because I ( sleep ) ……………….

5. It was beautiful yesterday when we went for a walk in the park. The sun ( shine ) …………………… . A cool breeze ( ( blow ) ………….. . The birds ( sing ) ………….

6. My brother and sister ( argue ) ………. about something when I ( walk ) ………… into the room

7. I got a package in the mail. When I ( open ) ……. it, I ( find ) ……….. a surprise

8. While Mrs. Emerson ( read ) ………… the little boy a story , he ( fall ) …………. asleep, so she ( close ) ……… the book and quitely ( tiptoe ) ……….. out of the room

9. A: why weren’t you at the meeting ?

  B : I ( wait )………. for an overseas call from my family

10. A : ( you , hear ) ……………. what she just said ?

B : No, I ( listen ,not ) ……….. . I (think ) ………….. about something else

11. A : how ( you , break ) ………….. your arm ?

B : I ( slip ) …………. on the ice while I ( cross ) ……….. the street in front of the dorm

12. A : I’m sure you met Carol Jones at the party last night

B : I don’t remember her. What ( she , wear ) …………..?

13. It was my first day of class. I ( find , finally ) …………. the right room. The room ( be , already ) ……………… full of students. On one side of the room , students ( talk , busily ) ………………… to each other in Spanish. Other students ( speak ) ……………….. Japanese, and some ( converse ) ………………. in Arabic. It sounded like the United Nations. Some of the students , however , ( sit , just ) ……………….quietly by themselves. I ( choose ) ……………… an empty seat in the last row and ( sit )………………. down. In a few minutes , the teacher ( walk ) ………………. into the room and all the multilingual conversation ( stop ) ……………………….

14. I really enjoyed my vacation last January. Whileit ( snow )……………………..in Toronto, the sun ( shine ) ………………….. inFlorida. While you ( shovel ) ………………. snow in Iowa, I ( lie ) ………………….on the beach in florida

Using progresisve verbs with always to complain

Using progresisve verbs with always to complain

In sentence referring to present time , usually the simple present is used with always to discribe habitual or everyday activities,

Example :

- Mary always leaves for school at 7:45

In special circumtances , a speaker may use the present progressive with always to complain , i.e. to express annoyance or anger .*

Example :

- mary is always leacing her dirty socks on the floor for me to pick up ! who does she think I am ? Her maid ?

In addition to always , the words forever  and constantly are also used with the present progressive to express annoyance

Example :

- I am always / forever / constantly picking up Mary’s dirty socks !

Always , forever , and constantly can also be used with the past progressive to express annoyance or anger.

Example :

- I didn’t like having Sam for my roommate last year. He was always leaving his dirty clothes on the floor.

* “ Mary is walways leaving her dirty socks on the floor “ expresses annoyance

“ Mary always leaves her dirty socks on the floor “ is a statement of fact in which the speaker is not necessarily expressing an attitude of annoyance . annoyance may , however be shown by the speaker’s tone of voice.